Amritsar Tregedy (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Amritsar Tregedy ,1919

The immediate reaction of the authorities against hartal was to prohibit one of the leader, Satyapal, froms peaking in public. This did not frighten the citizens and on March 30, a hartal was observed and a meeting was held in Jallianwala Bagh (Amritsar). On April 4th, another leader, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, was restrained. on April 6th, complete hartal was observed but peace was maintained. the Deputy Commissioner immidiately asked for additional military force. On April 9, there was Hindu festival and large processions of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs streamed through the streets.

Gandhijee who at the invitation of the leaders was travelling to the Punjab was stopped at Palwal and prohibited from engring the province.

On the next morning i.e. April 10, Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal were deported from Amritsar to an unknown place. This act of deportion touched off a new wave of injury to popular sentiment. A huge prrocession of 20,000 to 30,000 was peacefully taken out at Jallianwala Bagh in the afternoon of April 13th to protest against the areest of the leaders. They were peacefully listening to the speeches of the leaders when Genral Dyer and his men appeared at the main gate. General Dyer immediately deployed his troops and without any warning, opened fire and continued firing till the ammunation ran short. The casualities were officially estimated at 379 killed and over 1,200 wounded.

In Gujranwala, Gujrat, Lahore, Kasur and Multan on April 13th, the mobs excited by news from Amritsar committed arson and plunder. The authorities proclaimed martial law all over the Punjab. The horrors of Lahore and Amritsar were repeated and thousands of people in cities and villages were killed. Jinnah was shocked beyond measure at the suffering of Muslims in Punjab under martial law.

Rowaltt Act (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Rowaltt Act, 1919

Towards the close of the first World War the anti - British feeling in India reached its climax and the British government found the normal machinery of law end order to be totally inadequate to cope with the situation. Consequently, on December 10, 1917, the Government appointed a Committee "to investigate revolutionary crime in the country, and to suggest legislative measures for its eradication". Mr. Justice S.A.T. Rowaltt was appointed the president, two judges of the High Courts in India .. one English man and other an Indian, and two non - officials , one English man and one Indian, were made members of the committee.

After a review of the situation, the Rowaltt Committee produced much evidence of detailed subversive activity and made proposals for strengthening the law. Acting in the light of these recommendations the Government of India drafted twi bills, what were popularly knows as the Rowaltt Bills and were published on January 18, 1919, and introduced in the Imperial Legislative Council on the Feberuary 6, 1919. Wgeb the Rowaltt Bills were presented before the Imperial Legislative Council, they were condemned as reactionary by all sections of Indian opinion. But despite of unanimous oppositions of the Indian members of the Council, the new legislation was rushed through the legislature with indecent haste. The bills were presented to the House on 6 and 10 March, respectively, and were immediately reffered to Select Committee. The Select Committee gave its report on March 12, and on March 18 , Council passed one of the bills into law which came into operation from March 21, 1919. The main features of the act were:

1. The Government was authorized to discard any bail or bond of any body.
2. The act gave to provincial governments the power of internment.
3. Small matters were also invertened by authorities comprising; publishing, news paper distribution, processions or participations in processions.
4. Any body could be asked to report at police station on their discretion.
5. Extraordinary powers of search, arrest, demand of security etc were conferred on the provincial government.
6. The act allowed judges to try political cases without juries in specified cases. A special court from whose judgement there could be no appeal, trial in camera and consideration of evidence not admissible by the law of evidence, were provided for this purpose.
7. The government was authorized to ban any Indian's entry into India from abroad.
8. If any person found in possession of prohibited literature, he will be charged for that even if he has no desire to publicize it.

Since opposition to the Rowaltt Bills with in the Legislatve Council proved ineffictive, the challange was next taken ip by Mr. Gandhi. Even before the Rowaltt Bills were enacted, Gandhi started his Satyagrah campaign against Government at Ahmedabad on Feberuary 24, 1919 in connection with the Rowaltt Bills. The word 'Satyagarah' is, according to Mr. Gandhi, of modern origin, having been invented by him, and means insistence on truth, and force derivable from such insistence.

On March 23, Gandhi, having marshalled his forces, began the war against the Act by proclaiming a hartal (a suspension of economic activity) on an all - India scale. The date was first fixed as march 30, 1919, but subsequently changed to April 6. It was to be a day of fasting and prayer, the day on which India opened non - violent war against British imperialism. Gandhi jee wrote to the Viceroy, The Satyagarah compaign constitutes an attempt to revolutionize politics and restore moral force to its original position".

The response to the call was amazing. Towns and villages in every part of country joined with one another to make the hartal a success, to demonstrate that a common feeling stirred the hearts of all Indians, A new confidence was born, and it was the beginning of a new era.

In Delhi the Satyagrah day was observed on March 30, Scenes of unprecedented enthusiasm were enacted. Hindus and Muslims joined in the demonstrations. Swami Shraddhananda, an eminent Arya Samaj leader, was invited to address the Muslims gathered in the greate Masjid. Jama Masjid, Delhi. A huge pocession inarched through the streets. The unity of the Hindus and Muslims and the excitement in the masses were signs of danger in the eyes of the authorities. The only method known to them for dealing with such a phenomenon was to try and suppress it by force. Police obstruction, rioting, violance and shooting were the inevitable results.

In Bombay, where Gandhijee himself was present, immence crowds gathered on Chaupati Beach and marched through the city without any incident. Gandhijee and Sarojini Naidu made speaches in the Masjid. Gandhijee's books on which Government had placed ban were openly sold in defiance of orders.

Already many meetings of protest had taken all over the province. On April 6, hartals were staged in Lahore and other towns and on April 10 on the receipt of the news of Gandhijee's arrest a procession was taken out at Lahore. The police fired upon student processionists. A crowd and a meeting were subjected to shooting. Three local leaders were deported. On April 12, a serious rising at Kasur took place. Mobs from the town had invaded the Kasur railway station; held up the trains; brutally murdered two British Warrant Officers; attempted to murder others, looted and burnt the station; cut the telegraph wires. They then attacked the Treasury, and were finally driven off after the police guard opened fire.

Government of India Act (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms
(Govt. Of India Act), 1919

Edwin Montague, The secretary of State for India, visited India from November 1917 to April 1918 and, in cooperation with the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, held discussion with Indian leaders of all opinions. The result of these conversations and the Viceroy - Secretary of State deliberations was the Montagu - Chelmsford Report, which was published on July 8, 1918. The proposals of the report were supported by all the members of the council of the Secretary of State and of the Viceroy's Executive Council, and were welcomed by the non - official members of the Imperial Legislative Council, but were severely criticized by the Muslim League and the Congress. The Report's plan was so far removed from that of the Congress - League scheme that no attempt was made to arrange a compromise, and the official recommendations were drafted into a Government of India Bill, which passed through Parliament in November 1919 and received the Royal Assent on December 23. The main features of the Act were:

1. The Act gave separate representation to the Muslims and also extended it to other minorities i.e. Sikhs, Christians and Anglo - Indian Christians.
2. At the centre, the Central Legislative Council was to be replaced by the bicameral legislative; the Council of State and the Indian Legislative Assembly. In both great majority of members would be elected.
3. In the provincial field, Act introduced the system of 'Dyrachy' i.e. a division of powers between the responsible ministers and the irresponsible Executive Councilors.
4. The Provincial Legislatures were enlarged and 70 percent seats were ensured for elected representation.
5. The normal tenure of the Assembly was fixed at 3 years, but the Governor General had the power to extend it or dissolve the House earlier.
6. Franchise was extended by lowering the property qualification.
7. Universities, landholdings, industries and commerce received representation as constituencies.
8. Law and order, and Land Revenue departments were kept reserved for British administration. While departments of education, agriculture, public health and local government were transferred to Indian ministers.
9. Under this Act of 1919 a statutory commission was also to be appointed after 10 years to examine the working of the system and to advice for the future of the Indian Constitution.

The principle under lying the new and unusual system of Dyrachy in the Act of 1919 was to train Indian politicians in representative government before trusting them with full powers in all fields. For this reason some subjects were made popular and given into the charge of popularly selected ministers who were responsible to the provincial legislatatures. And some subjects were reserved to to eGovernor, who administrated them through appointed executive councilors who wre not accountable to the provincial assemblies.

But the scheme under the act was not entirely successful. Governament at the centre remained under the control of the British officials, responsible to the British Government. The important departments in the provinces also remained under the British officials, known as Executive Councilors, responsible to the British Governors and through them to the Governeor General.

In the elections held in 1920 under the new Act, the Congress took no part. In 1923, however, the Congress decided to contest the next elections, not with a view to working the constitution but to destroy it from within. The Muslims, on the other hand, did not disapprove the Act of 1919 though they were not completely satisfied with it.

Lucknow Pact (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Lucknow Pact, 1916

In December 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League held a joint session at Lucknow in which Hindu - Muslim unity was passionately preached from one platform and approved a joint scheme of the reforms to be presented to Viceroy which could satisfy both the Muslims and the Hindus. The scheme is generally termed as Lucknow Pact. The agreement was confirmed by the Muslim League and Indian national Congress at their following annual sessions. Important points of the agreement were as follows:

1. Separate electorates were accepted by the Congress.
2. The Congress agreed to enforce electorates in those provinces also, where they did not exist, for example Punjab and Central Provinces.
3. No bill affecting the particular community should be proceeded within any council, if three - fourths of the representatives of that community opposed it.
4. The Muslims and the Hindus were to have weightage in provinces where they formed minorities. The Muslim strength in the different provinces shall be as follows:

Serial No.	Provinces	Percentage of Muslim Population		Percentage of seats reserved for the Muslims
1	Punjab	55		50
2	Bengal	53		40
3	Madras	07		15
4	Bombay	20		33.3
5	Utter Pradesh	14		30
6	CP	04		15
7	Bihar	10		25

The Punjab and Bengal got less representation than their percentage of Muslim population, whereas the other provinces, in which the Muslims were in a minority, received more. Contemporary newspapers show how strongly some Punjabi and Bengali leaguers reacted to the injustice extended to their provinces. Weightage of the heaviest variety given the Muslim minorities in Bihar and CP and Madras and UP did not in any manner help the Muslims of India; it did not even help the recipients except to give them a hollow confidence. On the other hand, the deprivation imposed upon the Punjab and Bengal sealed their fate. In Bengal, There was unstable ministries, political uncertainty and the strange incident of a Muslim League - Hindu Mahasabha coalition. the Punjab was saved from such hazards by the establishment of Unionist party.



The Lucknow Pact proved to be the only beacon light on the political horizon of India. If this sense of cooperation could have been carried on, a better atmosphere of understanding and cooperation could have been generated. But the Hindu did not honestly stick to these principles. Instead of understanding and cooperation, mistrust, hatred and non - cooperation crept into the political life of the Indian people. The Lucknow Pact and the non - cooperation movement in which the Congress collaborated with the Khilafat movement demonstrated the force of unity, and held it been further pushed the political struggle could have marked the beginning of new era.

Efforts For Hindu - Muslim Unity (Continued: Pakistani Movement)

Efforts For Hindu - Muslim Unity

After the announcement of the Minto - Morley reforms, Hindu - Muslim relations got strained. But on January 1st, 1911, in Lucknow representatives of the Hindu and the Muslims discussed their communities relations. The meeting which was held following the Congress session in 1910, established the claim of the Muslim League as representative of the Muslims of the subcontinent.

In December 1913 the annual session of the Congress was held at Karachi in which Bhopindra Nath Basu expressed his good feelings for the Muslims and stressed the need of better understanding and cooperation.

Tt was during the end of 1913 when Mr. Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the Muslim League on condition that his association with the League would not in any way curtail his loyalty to the Congress. At that time he was the greatest advocate of the Hindu - Muslim unity.

On December 31, 1915, the annual session of the Congress was held at Bombay. Mr. Jinnah invited the Muslim League to hold its session at Bombay. So both the Congress and Muslim League, in a joint session agreed to constitute committees for both political bodies which would consider for special needs of both the Hindus and Muslims and to sort out the way for political reconciliation between Hindus and Muslims by negotiation. These two committees drew up a scheme for the constitutional reforms in India.

Minto - Morley Reforms (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Minto - Morley Reforms
(Indian Councils Act), 1909

It was during the later half of 1906 that the Secretary of State for India Lord Morley began to pay serious attention to the formulation of the constitutional reforms. He was in touch with the Viceroy of India Lord Minto who appointed a committee in 1906 to consider the necessity for further reforms in the legislative councils and prepare a dispatch.

In the meantime, a Muslim deputation lead by the Aga Khan met the Viceroy and made demands including separate electorates for Muslims.

The dispatch, prepared by committee, was ready in early 1907 and was sent to London on March, 19. It served as the basis of the reforms which were enacted into law by Indian Councils Act of 1909. The main features of the Act were:

1. The Muslims demand for separate electorates for the Muslims was accepted.
2. The method of election was partly indirect and partly direct.
3. Provincial Councils were enlarged.
4. Small non-official majorities were provided in the Provincial Councils but an official majority was retained at the center.
5. Besides the Viceroy and his Executive Council, nearly 60 members were added to the Central Legislative Council
6. Members of Central Legislative council were given authority to raise questions relating to administration and policy.

Lord Morley described these reforms as " the opening of a very important chapter in the history of relations of England and India" and "the turning over a fresh leaf in the history of British responsibility to India." The enhancement of the number and powers of the members of the Legislative Councils and the introduction of the principle of election for them were steps towards gradual establishment of parliamentary government in India through the farmers of the Act had no intention of it.

The Hindu politicians and the Congress immediately started a campaign of criticism and opposition. At the 1901 session of the Congress condemned the provision of separate representation for the Muslims and demanded its removal. From then on up to the passing of the 1935 Act, the Congress made a habit of it to pas a resolution at its gathering in condemnation of separate electorates and in favor of their removal. The only occasion on which congress agreed to their retention was the Lucknow Pact 1916.

The Foundation Of Muslim League (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

The Foundation Of Muslim League, 1906

The demand for separate electorate which was indeed a singular initiative of Mohsin ul Mulk was conceded. The acceptance of this demand for the Indian Muslims helped him to move a little ahead. He ventured to set up a political organization to safeguard the rights of the Indian Muslims, when political reforms were introduced under the Indian Councils Act of 1892.

In pursuance of this resolve, the Muslim leaders met at Dhaka in December 1906 on the occasion of the annual meeting of Muhammadan Educational Conference. In the meeting that took place at Shahbag (Dhaka) under the presidency of Nawab Vaqar ul Mulk, Sir Salimullah, the Nawab of Dhaka, moved a resolution for the establishing a Muslim organization to be called the All Indian Muslim League. Muhammad Ali Johar, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Maulana Zafar Ali Khan supported the resolution.
The league adopted as its objects:

1. To promote among the Muslims of India feelings of loyalty to the British Government and to remove any misconceptions that may arise as to the intentions of government with regards to any of its measures.
2. To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims of India and respectfully to represent their needs and aspirations to government.
3. to prevent the rise among Muslims of India of any feelings of hostility towards other communities without prejudice to other objects of the League.
   

The first objective of the Muslim League, viz "to promote among the Muslims of India feelings of loyalty to the British Government" was criticized by the Hindus on the basis that the Muslim League was created "not to safeguard interests by to strengthen the British rule in India". The critics, however, forgot that the Congress professed the same political aim. It should be appreciated that no better objective could be chosen in those circumstances. The Muslim League changed its creed after a few years and emerged as the sword - arm of the Indian Muslims in their political battle. At the birth of the Muslim League a propaganda campaign was launched by the Congress against the League because its leaders did not like the Muslims to organize themselves and threaten the Hindus concept of majority rule.

The origin of the Muslim League can be easily explained. Two factors went into its establishment:

1. Hindu attitude towards Muslim interests; the Bengal agitation had exposed Hindu feelings beyond any doubt.
2. To cope with the Minto - Morley Reforms.

The first session of All India Muslim League was held at Karachi, in December 1907 and was presided over by Sir Adamjee Pir Bhai. The constitution was adopted with some modifications in the draft. Sir Aga Khan was appointed the first president of the newly born organization.

On one hand the Hindu majority had alienated the Muslim minority. On the other hand, a representative system of government was soon to be introduced in India. It was not enough to keep away from the Congress. It was also important that a separate Muslim organization should be created to safeguard their interests. After Minto's acceptance of the demand for separate representation it was an act of ordinary common sense to have a political party to fight the elections.

Simla Deputation (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Simla Deputation, 1906

The Hindu attitude during the anti - partition agitation had convinced the Muslims of the futility of expecting any justice or fair play from the Hindu majority. Therefore, to safeguard their interests at this critical moment, Mohsin - ul - Mulk and other prominent Muslims leaders drew up a plan of separate electorates for their community and presented it to the Viceroy, Lord Minto, at Simla on October 1st, 1906 through a representative deputation headed by the Aga Khan. The Muslims put forward the following demands.

1. Separate electorate
2. Muslims must be given weightage in all elected bodies, i.e. in the Central Legislature and in the Legislatures of those provinces where the Muslims were in a majority, the number of seats for the Muslims would be proportionately greater than the percentage of Muslims in the population concerned. In the provinces where the Muslims were in a majority, they would obtain seats less than their proportional number
3. Full representation services and councils.
4. Representation in University senate and syndicates.
5. Aid for the establishment of Muslim University.

The Viceroy did not promise anything substantial to the deputation of the fear of offending other communities. But he assured the Muslims that "their political rights and interests as a community will be safeguarded by an administrative reorganization".

Both the demands by the Muslims and the sympathetic attitude shown to them by the Viceroy were the most deep and profound aspects of Simla deputation. The demand of separate electorate proved that the Muslims considered themselves as a separate nation. Realistically speaking the door of cooperation with Hindus closed for ever by demanding separate identity as a nation.

The Simla deputation, as it is known, proved to be a stepping stone in the history of Indian Muslims because, by acceding to the principle of separate electorates, the British recognized the Muslims as a separate nation. The demand for separate electorate was an unavoidable necessity because the members elected by joint electorates could not be the true representatives of the Muslims.

Annulment of Partition (Continued: Pakistan Movement)

Annulment of Partition, 1911

The vigorous Hindu agitation rocked the government which could not withstand the extreme pressure of the movement. The Hindus threatened the government to boycott the forthcoming tour of King George to India. The threat proved successful and the British Government surrendered in front of the Hindu agitation. The partition of Bengal was ultimately annulled by a royal announcement by his Majesty King George V ( five) on 12 December 1911, at the occasion of his coronation at Delhi Durbar.